Mothers who smoke more than six cigarettes a day during pregnancy are more likely to have babies who develop diagnosable conduct disorders during childhood, a study for the Department for Education and Skills has reported.

Despite the practical difficulties facing professionals in getting pregnant mothers to stop smoking when they may already be under severe stress, the justification for pressing on has never been stronger, says the research.

Stress and anxiety during pregnancy are themselves linked to subsequent behaviour problems in children. In women who were most anxious in late pregnancy and who had boy babies, the sons’ risk of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) later on was double that in the overall population.

The study reports that regular home visits by trained home visitor nurses during pregnancy and continuing during the child’s first two years had a positive impact on vulnerable families. Baby massage by mothers, and using a front-carrying sling, were also found to improve the relationship between mother and baby.

Support from the Start. DfES, 2004. www.dfes.gov.uk/research